bettercap is a tool that can perform session hijacking attacks on wireless networks, among other network security and penetration testing tasks. bettercap can capture and manipulate network traffic, perform man-in-the-middle attacks, spoof and sniff protocols, inject custom payloads, and more1.

bettercap can perform session hijacking attacks on wireless networks that use the WPA-PSK security protocol by exploiting the four-way handshake process that occurs when a client connects to a wireless access point. The four-way handshake is used to establish a shared encryption key between the client and the access point, based on the pre-shared key (PSK) that is configured on both devices. However, the four-way handshake also exposes some information that can be used to crack the PSK offline, such as the nonce values, the MAC addresses, and the message integrity code (MIC) of the packets2.

bettercap can capture the four-way handshake packets using its Wi-Fi module and save them in a file. The file can then be fed to a tool like Hashcat or Aircrack-ng to crack the PSK using brute force or dictionary attacks. Once the PSK is obtained, bettercap can use it to decrypt the wireless traffic and perform session hijacking attacks on the clients connected to the access point3.

Therefore, bettercap is an appropriate tool to carry out a session hijacking attack on a wireless network that uses the WPA-PSK security protocol.

References:

• bettercap: the Swiss Army knife for 802.11, BLE and Ethernet networks reconnaissance and MITM attacks
• How the WPA2 Enterprise Wireless Security Protocol Works
• Cracking WPA/WPA2 Passwords with Bettercap and Hashcat

DNS tunneling may be a method wont to send data over the DNS protocol, a protocol which has never been intended for data transfer. due to that, people tend to overlook it and it’s become a well-liked but effective tool in many attacks.Most popular use case for DNS tunneling is obtaining free internet through bypassing captive portals at airports, hotels, or if you are feeling patient the not-so-cheap on the wing Wi-Fi.On those shared internet hotspots HTTP traffic is blocked until a username/password is provided, however DNS traffic is usually still allowed within the background: we will encode our HTTP traffic over DNS and voilà, we’ve internet access.This sounds fun but reality is, browsing anything on DNS tunneling is slow. Like, back to 1998 slow.Another more dangerous use of DNS tunneling would be bypassing network security devices (Firewalls, DLP appliances…) to line up an immediate and unmonitored communications channel on an organisation’s network. Possibilities here are endless: Data exfiltration, fixing another penetration testing tool… you name it.To make it even more worrying, there’s an outsized amount of easy to use DNS tunneling tools out there.There’s even a minimum of one VPN over DNS protocol provider (warning: the planning of the web site is hideous, making me doubt on the legitimacy of it).As a pentester all this is often great, as a network admin not such a lot .

How does it work:For those that ignoramus about DNS protocol but still made it here, i feel you deserve a really brief explanation on what DNS does: DNS is sort of a phonebook for the web , it translates URLs (human-friendly language, the person’s name), into an IP address (machine-friendly language, the phone number). That helps us remember many websites, same as we will remember many people’s names.For those that know what DNS is i might suggest looking here for a fast refresh on DNS protocol, but briefly what you would like to understand is:• A Record: Maps a website name to an IP address.example.com ? 12.34.52.67• NS Record (a.k.a. Nameserver record): Maps a website name to an inventory of DNS servers, just in case our website is hosted in multiple servers.example.com ? server1.example.com, server2.example.comWho is involved in DNS tunneling?• Client. Will launch DNS requests with data in them to a website .• One Domain that we will configure. So DNS servers will redirect its requests to an outlined server of our own.• Server. this is often the defined nameserver which can ultimately receive the DNS requests.The 6 Steps in DNS tunneling (simplified):1. The client encodes data during a DNS request. The way it does this is often by prepending a bit of knowledge within the domain of the request. for instance : mypieceofdata.server1.example.com2. The DNS request goes bent a DNS server.3. The DNS server finds out the A register of your domain with the IP address of your server.4. The request for mypieceofdata.server1.example.com is forwarded to the server.5. The server processes regardless of the mypieceofdata was alleged to do. Let’s assume it had been an HTTP request.6. The server replies back over DNS and woop woop, we’ve got signal.

Bypassing Firewalls through the DNS Tunneling Method DNS operates using UDP, and it has a 255-byte limit on outbound queries. Moreover, it allows only alphanumeric characters and hyphens. Such small size constraints on external queries allow DNS to be used as an ideal choice to perform data exfiltration by various malicious entities. Since corrupt or malicious data can be secretly embedded into the DNS protocol packets, even DNSSEC cannot detect the abnormality in DNS tunneling. It is effectively used by malware to bypass the firewall to maintain communication between the victim machine and the C&C server. Tools such as NSTX (https://sourceforge.net), Heyoka (http://heyoka.sourceforge.netuse), and Iodine (https://code.kryo.se) use this technique of tunneling traffic across DNS port 53. CEH v11 Module 12 Page 994

WEP encryption is an outdated and insecure method of protecting wireless networks from unauthorized access and eavesdropping. WEP uses a static key that can be easily cracked by various tools and techniques, such as capturing the initialization vectors, brute-forcing the key, or exploiting the weak key scheduling algorithm1. Therefore, you should recommend a more secure encryption method to enhance the security of the company’s wireless network.

One of the most suitable replacements for WEP encryption is WPA2-PSK with AES encryption. WPA2 stands for Wi-Fi Protected Access 2, which is a security standard that improves upon the previous WPA standard. WPA2 uses a robust encryption algorithm called AES, which stands for Advanced Encryption Standard. AES is a block cipher that uses a 128-bit key and is considered to be very secure and resistant to attacks2.

WPA2-PSK stands for WPA2 Pre-Shared Key, which is a mode of WPA2 that uses a passphrase or a password to generate the encryption key. The passphrase or password must be entered by the users who want to connect to the wireless network. The key is then derived from the passphrase or password using a function called PBKDF2, which stands for Password-Based Key Derivation Function 2. PBKDF2 adds a salt and a number of iterations to the passphrase or password to make it harder to crack3.

WPA2-PSK with AES encryption offers several advantages over WEP encryption, such as:

• It uses a dynamic key that changes with each session, instead of a static key that remains the same.
• It uses a stronger encryption algorithm that is more difficult to break, instead of a weaker encryption algorithm that is more vulnerable to attacks.
• It uses a longer key that provides more security, instead of a shorter key that provides less security.
• It uses a more secure key derivation function that adds complexity and randomness, instead of a simple key generation function that is predictable and flawed.

Therefore, you should recommend WPA2-PSK with AES encryption as a suitable replacement to enhance the security of the company’s wireless network.

References:

• Wireless Security - Encryption - Online Tutorials Library
• WiFi Security: WEP, WPA, WPA2, WPA3 And Their Differences - NetSpot
• WPA2-PSK (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 Pre-Shared Key)

Active Online Attacks: Hash Injection/Pass-the-Hash (PtH) Attack A hash injection/PtH attack allows an attacker to inject a compromised hash into a local session and use the hash to validate network resources The attacker finds and extracts a logged-on domain admin account hash The attacker uses the extracted hash to log on to the domain controller

The action that would best protect your web server from potential misconfiguration-based attacks is performing regular server configuration audits. A server configuration audit is a process of reviewing and verifying the security settings and parameters of the server, such as user accounts, permissions, services, ports, protocols, files, directories, logs, and patches. A server configuration audit can help you to identify and fix any security misconfigurations that may expose your server to attacks, such as using default credentials, enabling unnecessary services, leaving open ports, or missing security updates. A server configuration audit can also help you to comply with the security standards and best practices for your server, such as the CIS Benchmarks or the OWASP Secure Configuration Guide12.

The other options are not as effective as option A for the following reasons:

• B. Enabling multi-factor authentication for users: This option is not relevant because it does not address the server misconfiguration issue, but the user authentication issue. Multi-factor authentication is a method of verifying the identity of the users by requiring them to provide two or more pieces of evidence, such as a password, a code, or a biometric factor. Multi-factor authentication can enhance the security of the user accounts and prevent unauthorized access, but it does not prevent the server from being attacked due to misconfigured settings or parameters3.
• C. Implementing a firewall to filter traffic: This option is not sufficient because it does not prevent the server from being misconfigured, but only limits the exposure of the server to the network. A firewall is a device or software that monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predefined rules. A firewall can protect the server from external attacks by blocking or allowing certain ports, protocols, or IP addresses. However, a firewall cannot protect the server from internal attacks or from attacks that exploit the allowed traffic. Moreover, a firewall itself can be misconfigured and cause security issues4.
• D. Regularly backing up server data: This option is not preventive but reactive, as it does not protect the server from being attacked, but only helps to recover the data in case of an attack. Backing up server data is a process of creating and storing copies of the data on the server, such as files, databases, or configurations. Backing up server data can help you to restore the data in case of data loss, corruption, or deletion due to an attack. However, backing up server data does not prevent the server from being attacked in the first place, and it does not fix the security misconfigurations that may have caused the attack5.

References:

• 1: Server Configuration Audit - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• 2: Secure Configuration Guide - OWASP Foundation
• 3: Multi-factor authentication - Wikipedia
• 4: Firewall (computing) - Wikipedia
• 5: Backup - Wikipedia

flags –source-port and -g are equivalent and instruct nmap to send packets through a selected port. this option is used to try to cheat firewalls whitelisting traffic from specific ports. the following example can scan the target from the port twenty to ports eighty, 22, 21,23 and 25 sending fragmented packets to LinuxHint.

The ethical hacker is likely performing an SYN scan to stealthily identify open ports without fully establishing a connection. An SYN scan, also known as a half-open scan or a stealth scan, is a type of port scanning technique that exploits the TCP three-way handshake process. The hacker sends an SYN packet to a target port and waits for a response. If the target responds with an SYN/ACK packet, it means the port is open and listening for connections. If the target responds with an RST packet, it means the port is closed and not accepting connections. However, instead of completing the handshake with an ACK packet, the hacker sends an RST packet to abort the connection. This way, the hacker avoids creating a full connection and logging an entry in the target’s system, making the scan less detectable and intrusive. The hacker can repeat this process for different ports and identify which ones are open and potentially vulnerable to exploitation12.

The other options are not correct for the following reasons:

• B. They are performing a TCP connect scan to identify open ports on the target machine: This option is incorrect because a TCP connect scan involves establishing a full connection with the target port by completing the TCP three-way handshake. The hacker sends an SYN packet, receives an SYN/ACK packet, and then sends an ACK packet to finalize the connection. Then, the hacker terminates the connection with an RST or FIN packet. A TCP connect scan is more reliable and compatible than an SYN scan, but also more noisy and slow, as it creates more traffic and logs on the target system12.
• C. They are performing a vulnerability scan to identify any weaknesses in the target system: This option is incorrect because a vulnerability scan is a broader and deeper process than a port scan. A vulnerability scan involves identifying and assessing the security flaws and risks in a system or network, such as missing patches, misconfigurations, outdated software, or weak passwords. A vulnerability scan may use port scanning as one of its techniques, but it also uses other methods, such as banner grabbing, service enumeration, or exploit testing. A vulnerability scan usually requires more time, resources, and permissions than a port scan34.
• D. They are performing a network scan to identify live hosts and their IP addresses: This option is incorrect because a network scan is a different process than a port scan. A network scan involves discovering and mapping the devices and hosts connected to a network, such as routers, switches, servers, or workstations. A network scan may use ping, traceroute, or ARP requests to identify the IP addresses, MAC addresses, and hostnames of the live hosts. A network scan usually precedes a port scan, as it provides the target range and scope for the port scan56.

References:

• 1: Port Scanning Techniques - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• 2: nmap Host Discovery Techniques
• 3: Vulnerability Scanning Tools | OWASP Foundation
• 4: What Is Vulnerability Scanning? Types, Tools and Best Practices | Splunk
• 5: Network Scanning - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• 6: Network Scanning - Nmap

The most effective attack method for the penetration tester to exploit these vulnerabilities and attempt unauthorized access would be to execute a Brute Force attack, leveraging the lack of account lockout policy and the verbose error messages to guess the correct credentials. A Brute Force attack is a hacking method that uses trial and error to crack passwords, login credentials, or encryption keys. It is a simple yet reliable tactic for gaining unauthorized access to individual accounts and organizations’ systems and networks1. In this scenario, the tester can take advantage of the fact that the application does not lock out users after multiple failed login attempts, which means the tester can try as many combinations as possible without being blocked. The tester can also use the detailed error messages that disclose whether the username or password entered is incorrect, which can help narrow down the search space and reduce the number of guesses needed. For example, if the tester enters a wrong username and a wrong password, and the application responds with “Invalid username”, the tester can eliminate that username from the list of candidates and focus on finding the correct one. Similarly, if the tester enters a correct username and a wrong password, and the application responds with “Invalid password”, the tester can confirm that username and focus on finding the correct password. By using automated tools or scripts, the tester can perform a Brute Force attack faster and more efficiently.

The other options are not as effective or feasible as option A for the following reasons:

• B. The tester could exploit a potential SQL Injection vulnerability to manipulate the application’s database: This option is not feasible because there is no indication that the application is vulnerable to SQL Injection, which is a web security vulnerability that allows an attacker to interfere with the queries that an application makes to its database2. The application uses form-based authentication, which does not necessarily involve SQL queries, and the error messages do not reveal any SQL syntax or structure. Moreover, even if the application was vulnerable to SQL Injection, the tester would need to craft a malicious SQL query that can bypass the authentication mechanism and grant access to the application, which may not be possible or easy depending on the database design and configuration.
• C. The tester could launch a Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) attack to steal authenticated session cookies, potentially bypassing the clickjacking protection: This option is not effective because there is no evidence that the application is vulnerable to XSS, which is a web security vulnerability that allows an attacker to compromise the interactions that users have with a vulnerable application by injecting malicious scripts3. The application uses HTTP headers to prevent clickjacking attacks, which are a type of attack that tricks a user into clicking on a hidden or disguised element on a web page4. However, this does not imply that the application is vulnerable to XSS, which requires a different type of injection point and payload. Moreover, even if the application was vulnerable to XSS, the tester would need to find a way to deliver the malicious script to a legitimate user who is already authenticated, and then capture the stolen session cookies from the user’s browser, which may not be feasible or easy depending on the application’s design and security measures.
• D. The tester could execute a Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attack to intercept and modify the HTTP headers for a Clickjacking attack: This option is not feasible because a MitM attack is a type of attack that requires the attacker to insert themselves between two parties who believe that they are directly communicating with each other, and then relay or alter the communications between them5. In this scenario, the tester would need to intercept the HTTP traffic between the user and the application, and then modify the HTTP headers to remove or weaken the clickjacking protection. However, this would require the tester to have access to the network infrastructure or the user’s device, which may not be possible or easy depending on the network security and encryption. Moreover, even if the tester could perform a MitM attack, the tester would still need to trick the user into clicking on a malicious element on a web page, which may not be possible or easy depending on the user’s awareness and behavior.

References:

• 1: What is a Brute Force Attack? | Definition, Types & How It Works - Fortinet
• 2: What is SQL Injection? Tutorial & Examples | Web Security Academy
• 3: Cross Site Scripting (XSS) | OWASP Foundation
• 4: What is Clickjacking? | Definition, Types & Examples - Fortinet
• 5: Man-in-the-middle attack - Wikipedia

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5567385

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection#Blind_SQL_injection

Blind SQL injection is used when a web application is vulnerable to an SQL injection but the results of the injection are not visible to the attacker. The page with the vulnerability may not be one that displays data but will display differently depending on the results of a logical statement injected into the legitimate SQL statement called for that page. This type of attack has traditionally been considered time-intensive because a new statement needed to be crafted for each bit recovered, and depending on its structure, the attack may consist of many unsuccessful requests. Recent advancements have allowed each request to recover multiple bits, with no unsuccessful requests, allowing for more consistent and efficient extraction.

Buffer overflow this attack is an anomaly that happens when software writing data to a buffer overflows the buffer’s capacity, leading to adjacent memory locations being overwritten. In other words, an excessive amount of information is being passed into a container that doesn’t have enough space, which information finishes up replacing data in adjacent containers.Buffer overflows are often exploited by attackers with a goal of modifying a computer’s memory so as to undermine or take hold of program execution.

What’s a buffer?A buffer, or data buffer, is a neighborhood of physical memory storage wont to temporarily store data while it’s being moved from one place to a different . These buffers typically sleep in RAM memory. Computers frequently use buffers to assist improve performance; latest hard drives cash in of buffering to efficiently access data, and lots of online services also use buffers. for instance , buffers are frequently utilized in online video streaming to stop interruption. When a video is streamed, the video player downloads and stores perhaps 20% of the video at a time during a buffer then streams from that buffer. This way, minor drops in connection speed or quick service disruptions won’t affect the video stream performance.Buffers are designed to contain specific amounts of knowledge . Unless the program utilizing the buffer has built-in instructions to discard data when an excessive amount of is shipped to the buffer, the program will overwrite data in memory adjacent to the buffer.Buffer overflows are often exploited by attackers to corrupt software. Despite being well-understood, buffer overflow attacks are still a serious security problem that torment cyber-security teams. In 2014 a threat referred to as ‘heartbleed’ exposed many many users to attack due to a buffer overflow vulnerability in SSL software.

How do attackers exploit buffer overflows?An attacker can deliberately feed a carefully crafted input into a program which will cause the program to undertake and store that input during a buffer that isn’t large enough, overwriting portions of memory connected to the buffer space. If the memory layout of the program is well-defined, the attacker can deliberately overwrite areas known to contain executable code. The attacker can then replace this code together with his own executable code, which may drastically change how the program is meant to figure .For example if the overwritten part in memory contains a pointer (an object that points to a different place in memory) the attacker’s code could replace that code with another pointer that points to an exploit payload. this will transfer control of the entire program over to theattacker’s code.

The most plausible reason for the situation is that the secure LDAP connection was not properly initialized due to a lack of ‘use_ssl = True’ in the server object creation. To use secure LDAP (LDAPS), the CEH needs to specify the use_ssl parameter as True when creating the server object with the ldap3 library in Python. This parameter tells the library to use SSL/TLS encryption for the LDAP communication. If the parameter is omitted or set to False, the library will use plain LDAP, which may not be accepted by the target system that only allows secure LDAP connections12. For example, the CEH can use the following code to create a secure LDAP server object:

from ldap3 import Server, Connection, ALL

server = Server('ldaps://', use_ssl=True, get_info=ALL)

connection = Connection(server, user='', password='')

connection.bind()

The other options are not as plausible as option B for the following reasons:

• A. The Python version installed on the CEH’s machine is incompatible with the ldap3 library: This option is unlikely because the ldap3 library supports Python versions from 2.6 to 3.9, which covers most of the commonly used Python versions3. Moreover, if the Python version was incompatible, the CEH would not be able to install the library or import it in the code, and would encounter errors before establishing the connection.
• C. The enumeration process was blocked by the target system’s intrusion detection system: This option is possible but not very plausible because the CEH was able to establish a connection with the target, which means the intrusion detection system did not block the initial handshake. Moreover, the enumeration process would not affect the response of the target system, but rather the visibility of the results. If the intrusion detection system detected and blocked the enumeration, the CEH would receive an error message or a blank response, not an unexpected response.
• D. The system failed to establish a connection due to an incorrect port number: This option is incorrect because the CEH was able to establish a connection with the target, which means the port number was correct. If the port number was incorrect, the CEH would not be able to connect to the target system at all, and would receive a connection refused error.

References:

• 1: ldap3 - LDAP library for Python
• 2: How to use LDAPS with Python - Stack Overflow
• 3: ldap3 2.9 documentation

Evilginx Evilginx is a man-in-the-middle attack framework used for phishing credentials and session cookies of any web service. It's core runs on Nginx HTTP server, which utilizes proxy_pass and sub_filter to proxy and modify HTTP content, while intercepting traffic between client and server.

In this attack KRACK is an acronym for Key Reinstallation Attack. KRACK may be a severe replay attack on Wi-Fi Protected Access protocol (WPA2), which secures your Wi-Fi connection. Hackers use KRACK to take advantage of a vulnerability in WPA2. When in close range of a possible victim, attackers can access and skim encrypted data using KRACK.

How KRACK WorksYour Wi-Fi client uses a four-way handshake when attempting to attach to a protected network. The handshake confirms that both the client — your smartphone, laptop, et cetera — and therefore the access point share the right credentials, usually a password for the network. This establishes the Pairwise passkey (PMK), which allows for encoding .Overall, this handshake procedure allows for quick logins and connections and sets up a replacement encryption key with each connection. this is often what keeps data secure on Wi-Fi connections, and every one protected Wi-Fi connections use the four-way handshake for security. This protocol is that the reason users are encouraged to use private or credential-protected Wi-Fi instead of public connections.KRACK affects the third step of the handshake, allowing the attacker to control and replay the WPA2 encryption key to trick it into installing a key already in use. When the key’s reinstalled, other parameters related to it — the incremental transmit packet number called the nonce and therefore the replay counter — are set to their original values.Rather than move to the fourth step within the four-way handshake, nonce resets still replay transmissions of the third step. This sets up the encryption protocol for attack, and counting on how the attackers replay the third-step transmissions, they will take down Wi-Fi security.

Why KRACK may be a ThreatThink of all the devices you employ that believe Wi-Fi. it isn’t almost laptops and smartphones; numerous smart devices now structure the web of Things (IoT). due to the vulnerability in WPA2, everything connected to Wi-Fi is in danger of being hacked or hijacked.Attackers using KRACK can gain access to usernames and passwords also as data stored on devices. Hackers can read emails and consider photos of transmitted data then use that information to blackmail users or sell it on the Dark Web.Theft of stored data requires more steps, like an HTTP content injection to load malware into the system. Hackers could conceivably take hold of any device used thereon Wi-Fi connection. Because the attacks require hackers to be on the brink of the target, these internet security threats could also cause physical security threats.On the opposite hand, the necessity to be in close proximity is that the only excellent news associated with KRACK, as meaning a widespread attack would be extremely difficult.Victims are specifically targeted. However, there are concerns that a experienced attacker could develop the talents to use HTTP content injection to load malware onto websites to make a more widespread affect.

Everyone is in danger from KRACK vulnerability. Patches are available for Windows and iOS devices, but a released patch for Android devices is currently in question (November 2017). There are issues with the discharge , and lots of question if all versions and devices are covered.The real problem is with routers and IoT devices. These devices aren’t updated as regularly as computer operating systems, and for several devices, security flaws got to be addressed on the manufacturing side. New devices should address KRACK, but the devices you have already got in your home probably aren’t protected.

The best protection against KRACK is to make sure any device connected to Wi-Fi is patched and updated with the newest firmware. that has checking together with your router’s manufacturer periodically to ascertain if patches are available.

The safest connection option may be a private VPN, especially when publicly spaces. If you would like a VPN for private use, avoid free options, as they need their own security problems and there’ll even be issues with HTTPs. Use a paid service offered by a trusted vendor like Kaspersky. Also, more modern networks use WPA3 for better security.Avoid using public Wi-Fi, albeit it’s password protection. That password is out there to almost anyone, which reduces the safety level considerably.All the widespread implications of KRACK and therefore the WPA2 vulnerability aren’t yet clear. what’s certain is that everybody who uses Wi-Fi is in danger and wishes to require precautions to guard their data and devices.

The payload that would have the most significant impact in the case of a successful SQL injection attack is OR ‘a’='a; DROP TABLE members; --. This payload combines the manipulation of the WHERE clause with a destructive action, causing data loss. This payload works as follows:

• The OR ‘a’='a part of the payload is a logical expression that is always true, regardless of the input or the condition of the SQL statement. This part of the payload allows the attacker to bypass any authentication or authorization checks that may be implemented in the SQL statement, such as a login form or a search query.
• The ; part of the payload is a statement terminator that marks the end of the current SQL statement and allows the attacker to inject another SQL statement after it. This part of the payload enables the attacker to execute multiple SQL statements in a single query, which is also known as stacked queries or batched queries.
• The DROP TABLE members part of the payload is a destructive SQL statement that deletes the entire table named members from the database. This part of the payload causes data loss and may compromise the functionality and integrity of the application that relies on the table. The table name may vary depending on the target database, but the attacker can use other techniques, such as error-based or union-based SQL injection, to discover the table names before executing the drop statement.
• The – part of the payload is a comment symbol that tells the SQL engine to ignore the rest of the query. This part of the payload helps the attacker to avoid any syntax errors or unwanted results that may arise from the original query.

The other options are not as impactful as option C for the following reasons:

• A. ‘OR 'T="1: This payload manipulates the WHERE clause of an SQL statement, allowing the attacker to view unauthorized data. This payload is a common and basic SQL injection technique that injects a logical expression that is always true, such as 'OR 'T="1 or 'OR 1=1, to bypass the authentication or authorization checks of the SQL statement. This payload can allow the attacker to view data that they are not supposed to, such as user credentials, personal information, or financial records. However, this payload does not cause any data loss or modification, and it does not affect the functionality or integrity of the application.
• B. ‘OR username LIKE '%: This payload uses the LIKE operator to search for a specific pattern in a column. This payload is a variation of the previous payload that injects a logical expression that is always true, such as 'OR username LIKE '% or 'OR 1 LIKE '%, to bypass the authentication or authorization checks of the SQL statement. The LIKE operator is used to compare a value with a pattern that may contain wildcard characters, such as % or _, which match any string or character. This payload can allow the attacker to view data that matches the pattern, such as usernames that start with a certain letter or contain a certain substring. However, this payload does not cause any data loss or modification, and it does not affect the functionality or integrity of the application.
• D. UNION SELECT NULL, NULL, NULL – : This payload manipulates the UNION SQL operator, enabling the attacker to retrieve data from different database tables. This payload is an advanced SQL injection technique that injects the UNION SQL operator to combine the results of two or more SELECT statements into a single result set, which is then returned as part of the HTTP response. The UNION operator can be used to join the results from different tables that have the same number and type of columns. The NULL values are used to match the column types and avoid any errors. This payload can allow the attacker to retrieve data from tables that are not intended to be accessed by the application, such as system tables, configuration tables, or backup tables. However, this payload does not cause any data loss or modification, and it does not affect the functionality or integrity of the application.

References:

• 1: SQL Injection - OWASP Foundation
• 2: SQL Injection Payloads: How SQLi exploits work - Bright Security
• 3: SQL Injection - HackTricks

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnetwork

This is a fairly simple question. You must to understand what a subnet mask is and how it works.

A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network.The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called subnetting.

Computers that belong to the same subnet are addressed with an identical most-significant bit-group in their IP addresses. This results in the logical division of an IP address into two fields: the network number or routing prefix and the rest field or host identifier. The rest field is an identifier for a specific host or network interface.

The routing prefix may be expressed in Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation written as the first address of a network, followed by a slash character (/), and ending with the bit-length of the prefix. For example, 198.51.100.0/24 is the prefix of the Internet Protocol version 4 network starting at the given address, having 24 bits allocated for the network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits reserved for host addressing. Addresses in the range 198.51.100.0 to 198.51.100.255 belong to this network. The IPv6 address specification 2001:db8::/32 is a large address block with 296 addresses, having a 32-bit routing prefix.

For IPv4, a network may also be characterized by its subnet mask or netmask, which is the bitmask that when applied by a bitwise AND operation to any IP address in the network, yields the routing prefix. Subnet masks are also expressed in dot-decimal notation like an address. For example, 255.255.255.0 is the subnet mask for the prefix 198.51.100.0/24.

Table Description automatically generated

Brute-force attack when an attacker uses a set of predefined values to attack a target and analyze the response until he succeeds. Success depends on the set of predefined values. It will take more time if it is larger, but there is a better probability of success. In a traditional brute-force attack, the passcode or password is incrementally increased by one letter/number each time until the right passcode/password is found.

Error-based SQL Injection is a type of in-band SQL Injection attack that relies on error messages thrown by the database server to obtain information about the structure of the database. In some cases, error-based SQL injection alone is enough for an attacker to enumerate an entire database.

The ethical hacker is likely to use this type of SQL Injection attack because the application responds to logically incorrect queries with detailed error messages that divulge the underlying database’s structure. This means that the attacker can craft malicious SQL queries that trigger errors and reveal information such as table names, column names, data types, etc. The attacker can then use this information to construct more complex queries that extract data from the database.

For example, if the application uses the following query to display the username of a user based on the user ID:

SELECT username FROM users WHERE id = '$id'

The attacker can inject a single quote at the end of the user ID parameter to cause a syntax error:

SELECT username FROM users WHERE id = '1'

The application might display an error message like this:

You have an error in your SQL syntax; check the manual that corresponds to your MySQL server version for the right syntax to use near ''1'' at line 1

This error message reveals that the database server is MySQL and that the user ID parameter is enclosed in single quotes. The attacker can then use other techniques such as UNION, subqueries, or conditional statements to manipulate the query and retrieve data from other tables or columns.

References:

• [CEHv12 Module 05: Sniffing]
• Types of SQL Injection (SQLi) - GeeksforGeeks
• Types of SQL Injection? - Acunetix

The Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) is a suite of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) specifications for securing certain kinds of information provided by DNS for use on IP networks. DNSSEC is a set of extensions to DNS provide to DNS clients (resolvers) origin authentication of DNS data, authenticated denial of existence, and data integrity, but not availability or confidentiality. DNSSEC is necessary because the original DNS design did not include security but was designed to be a scalable distributed system. DNSSEC adds security while maintaining backward compatibility.

1. AV (Asset value) = $300 + (14 * $10) = $440 - the cost of a hard drive plus the work of a recovery person, i.e.how much would it take to replace 1 asset? 10 hours for resorting the OS and soft + 4 hours for DB restore multiplies by hourly rate of the recovery person.

2. SLE (Single Loss Expectancy) = AV * EF (Exposure Factor) = $440 * 1 = $440

3. ARO (Annual rate of occurrence) = 1/3 (every three years, meaning the probability of occurring during 1 years is 1/3)

4. ALE (Annual Loss Expectancy) = SLE * ARO = 0.33 * $440 = $145.2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kismet_(software)

Kismet is a network detector, packet sniffer, and intrusion detection system for 802.11 wireless LANs. Kismet will work with any wireless card which supports raw monitoring mode, and can sniff 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n traffic.

Most likely have an issue with DNS.

DNS stands for “Domain Name System.” It’s a system that lets you connect to websites by matching human-readable domain names (like example.com) with the server's unique ID where a website is stored.

Think of the DNS system as the internet’s phonebook. It lists domain names with their corresponding identifiers called IP addresses, instead of listing people’s names with their phone numbers. When a user enters a domain name like wpbeginner.com on their device, it looks up the IP address and connects them to the physical location where that website is stored.

NOTE: Often DNS lookup information will be cached locally inside the querying computer or remotely in the DNS infrastructure. There are typically 8 steps in a DNS lookup. When DNS information is cached, steps are skipped from the DNS lookup process, making it quicker. The example below outlines all 8 steps when nothing is cached.

The 8 steps in a DNS lookup:

1. A user types ‘example.com’ into a web browser, and the query travels into the Internet and is received by a DNS recursive resolver;

2. The resolver then queries a DNS root nameserver;

3. The root server then responds to the resolver with the address of a Top-Level Domain (TLD) DNS server (such as .com or .net), which stores the information for its domains. When searching for example.com, our request is pointed toward the .com TLD;

4. The resolver then requests the .com TLD;

5. The TLD server then responds with the IP address of the domain’s nameserver, example.com;

6. Lastly, the recursive resolver sends a query to the domain’s nameserver;

7. The IP address for example.com is then returned to the resolver from the nameserver;

8. The DNS resolver then responds to the web browser with the IP address of the domain requested initially;

Once the 8 steps of the DNS lookup have returned the IP address for example.com, the browser can request the web page:

9. The browser makes an HTTP request to the IP address;

10. The server at that IP returns the webpage to be rendered in the browser.

NOTE 2: DNS primarily uses the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) on port number 53 to serve requests. And if this port is blocked, then a problem arises already in the first step. But the ninth step is performed without problems.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_twin_(wireless_networks)

An evil twin attack is a hack attack in which a hacker sets up a fake Wi-Fi network that looks like a legitimate access point to steal victims’ sensitive details. Most often, the victims of such attacks are ordinary people like you and me.

The attack can be performed as a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack. The fake Wi-Fi access point is used to eavesdrop on users and steal their login credentials or other sensitive information. Because the hacker owns the equipment being used, the victim will have no idea that the hacker might be intercepting things like bank transactions.

An evil twin access point can also be used in a phishing scam. In this type of attack, victims will connect to the evil twin and will be lured to a phishing site. It will prompt them to enter their sensitive data, such as their login details. These, of course, will be sent straight to the hacker. Once the hacker gets them, they might simply disconnect the victim and show that the server is temporarily unavailable.

ADDITION: It may not seem obvious what happened. The problem is in the question statement. The attackers were not Alice and John, who were able to connect to the network without a password, but on the contrary, they were attacked and forced to connect to a fake network, and not to the real network belonging to Jane.

https://nmap.org/book/man-port-specification.html

NOTE: In my opinion, this is an absolutely wrong statement of the question. But you may come across a question with a similar wording on the exam. What does "fast" mean? If we want to increase the speed and intensity of the scan we can select the mode using the -T flag (0/1/2/3/4/5). At high -T values, we will sacrifice stealth and gain speed, but we will not limit functionality.

«nmap -T4 -F 10.10.0.0/24» This option is "correct" because of the -F flag.

-F (Fast (limited port) scan)

Specifies that you wish to scan fewer ports than the default. Normally Nmap scans the most common 1,000 ports for each scanned protocol. With -F, this is reduced to 100.

Technically, scanning will be faster, but just because we have reduced the number of ports by 10 times, we are just doing 10 times less work, not faster.

Tcpdump is a data-network packet analyzer computer program that runs under a command-line interface. It allows the user to display TCP/IP and other packets being transmitted or received over a network to which the computer is attached. Distributed under the BSD license, tcpdump is free software.

https://www.wireshark.org/

Wireshark is a free and open-source packet analyzer. It is used for network troubleshooting, analysis, software and communications protocol development, and education.

NOTE: Wireshark is very similar to tcpdump, but has a graphical front-end, plus some integrated sorting and filtering options.

Cyber Kill Chain Methodology 1. Reconnaissance - Gathering information about the target.

https://nmap.org/book/man-output.html

-oX - Requests that XML output be directed to the given filename.

File system permissions

Processes may automatically execute specific binaries as part of their functionality or to perform other actions. If the permissions on the file system directory containing a target binary, or permissions on the binary itself, are improperly set, then the target binary may be overwritten with another binary using user-level permissions and executed by the original process. If the original process and thread are running under a higher permissions level, then the replaced binary will also execute under higher-level permissions, which could include SYSTEM.

Adversaries may use this technique to replace legitimate binaries with malicious ones as a means of executing code at a higher permissions level. If the executing process is set to run at a specific time or during a certain event (e.g., system bootup) then this technique can also be used for persistence.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPsec

Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a secure network protocol suite that authenticates and encrypts the packets of data to provide secure encrypted communication between two computers over an Internet Protocol network. It is used in virtual private networks (VPNs).

IPsec includes protocols for establishing mutual authentication between agents at the beginning of a session and negotiation of cryptographic keys to use during the session. IPsec can protect data flows between a pair of hosts (host-to-host), between a pair of security gateways (network-to-network), or between a security gateway and a host (network-to-host). IPsec uses cryptographic security services to protect communications over Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It supports network-level peer authentication, data-origin authentication, data integrity, data confidentiality (encryption), and replay protection.

The initial IPv4 suite was developed with few security provisions. As a part of the IPv4 enhancement, IPsec is a layer 3 OSI model or internet layer end-to-end security scheme. In contrast, while some other Internet security systems in widespread use operate above layer 3, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS) that operates at the Transport Layer and Secure Shell (SSH) that operates at the Application layer, IPsec can automatically secure applications at the IP layer.

Risk Mitigation

Risk mitigation can be defined as taking steps to reduce adverse effects. There are four types of risk mitigation strategies that hold unique to Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery. When mitigating risk, it’s important to develop a strategy that closely relates to and matches your company’s profile.

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Risk Acceptance

Risk acceptance does not reduce any effects; however, it is still considered a strategy. This strategy is a common option when the cost of other risk management options such as avoidance or limitation may outweigh the cost of the risk itself. A company that doesn’t want to spend a lot of money on avoiding risks that do not have a high possibility of occurring will use the risk acceptance strategy.

Risk Avoidance

Risk avoidance is the opposite of risk acceptance. It is the action that avoids any exposure to the risk whatsoever. It’s important to note that risk avoidance is usually the most expensive of all risk mitigation options.

Risk Limitation

Risk limitation is the most common risk management strategy used by businesses. This strategy limits a company’s exposure by taking some action. It is a strategy employing a bit of risk acceptance and a bit of risk avoidance or an average of both. An example of risk limitation would be a company accepting that a disk drive may fail and avoiding a long period of failure by having backups.

Risk Transference

Risk transference is the involvement of handing risk off to a willing third party. For example, numerous companies outsource certain operations such as customer service, payroll services, etc. This can be beneficial for a company if a transferred risk is not a core competency of that company. It can also be used so a company can focus more on its core competencies.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol

The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is a networking protocol for clock synchronization between computer systems over packet-switched, variable-latency data networks.

NTP is intended to synchronize all participating computers within a few milliseconds of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). It uses the intersection algorithm, a modified version of Marzullo's algorithm, to select accurate time servers and is designed to mitigate variable network latency effects. NTP can usually maintain time to within tens of milliseconds over the public Internet and achieve better than one millisecond accuracy in local area networks. Asymmetric routes and network congestion can cause errors of 100 ms or more.

The protocol is usually described in terms of a client-server model but can easily be used in peer-to-peer relationships where both peers consider the other to be a potential time source. Implementations send and receive timestamps using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) on port number 123.

The honey trap is a technique where an attacker targets a person online by pretending to be an attractive person and then begins a fake online relationship to obtain confidential information about the target company. In this technique, the victim is an insider who possesses critical information about the target organization.

Baiting is a technique in which attackers offer end users something alluring in exchange for

important information such as login details and other sensitive data. This technique relies on

the curiosity and greed of the end-users. Attackers perform this technique by leaving a physical

device such as a USB flash drive containing malicious files in locations where people can easily

find them, such as parking lots, elevators, and bathrooms. This physical device is labeled with a

legitimate company's logo, thereby tricking end-users into trusting it and opening it on their

systems. Once the victim connects and opens the device, a malicious file downloads. It infects

the system and allows the attacker to take control.

For example, an attacker leaves some bait in the form of a USB drive in the elevator with the

label "Employee Salary Information 2019" and a legitimate company's logo. Out of curiosity and

greed, the victim picks up the device and opens it up on their system, which downloads the

bait. Once the bait is downloaded, a piece of malicious software installs on the victim's system,

giving the attacker access.

Replay Attack could be a variety of security attack to the info sent over a network.In this attack, the hacker or a person with unauthorized access, captures the traffic and sends communication to its original destination, acting because the original sender. The receiver feels that it’s Associate in Nursing genuine message however it’s really the message sent by the aggressor. the most feature of the Replay Attack is that the consumer would receive the message double, thence the name, Replay Attack.

Prevention from Replay Attack : 1. Timestamp technique –Prevention from such attackers is feasible, if timestamp is employed at the side of the info. Supposedly, the timestamp on an information is over a precise limit, it may be discarded, and sender may be asked to send the info once more.2. Session key technique –Another way of hindrance, is by victimisation session key. This key may be used one time (by sender and receiver) per dealing, and can’t be reused.

https://search.arin.net/rdap/?query=199.43.0.43

Windows TTL 128, Linux TTL 64, OpenBSD 255 ... https://subinsb.com/default-device-ttl-values/

Time to Live (TTL) represents to number of 'hops' a packet can take before it is considered invalid. For Windows/Windows Phone, this value is 128. This value is 64 for Linux/Android.

Vulnerability-Management Life Cycle The vulnerability management life cycle is an important process that helps identify and remediate security weaknesses before they can be exploited. 4.Remediation - applying fixes on vulnerable systems in order to reduce the impact and severity of vulnerabilities. (P.515/499)

Appropriately controlling admittance to web content is significant for running a safe web worker. Index crossing or Path Traversal is a HTTP assault which permits aggressors to get to limited catalogs and execute orders outside of the web worker’s root registry.

Web workers give two primary degrees of security instruments

• Access Control Lists (ACLs)
• Root index

An Access Control List is utilized in the approval cycle. It is a rundown which the web worker’s manager uses to show which clients or gatherings can get to, change or execute specific records on the worker, just as other access rights.

The root registry is a particular index on the worker record framework in which the clients are kept. Clients can’t get to anything over this root.

For instance: the default root registry of IIS on Windows is C:\Inetpub\wwwroot and with this arrangement, a client doesn’t approach C:\Windows yet approaches C:\Inetpub\wwwroot\news and some other indexes and documents under the root catalog (given that the client is confirmed by means of the ACLs).

The root index keeps clients from getting to any documents on the worker, for example, C:\WINDOWS/system32/win.ini on Windows stages and the/and so on/passwd record on Linux/UNIX stages.

This weakness can exist either in the web worker programming itself or in the web application code.

To play out a registry crossing assault, all an assailant requires is an internet browser and some information on where to aimlessly discover any default documents and registries on the framework.

What an assailant can do if your site is defenselessWith a framework defenseless against index crossing, an aggressor can utilize this weakness to venture out of the root catalog and access different pieces of the record framework. This may enable the assailant to see confined documents, which could give the aggressor more data needed to additional trade off the framework.

Contingent upon how the site access is set up, the aggressor will execute orders by mimicking himself as the client which is related with “the site”. Along these lines everything relies upon what the site client has been offered admittance to in the framework.

Illustration of a Directory Traversal assault by means of web application codeIn web applications with dynamic pages, input is generally gotten from programs through GET or POST solicitation techniques. Here is an illustration of a HTTP GET demand URL

GET http://test.webarticles.com/show.asp?view=oldarchive.html HTTP/1.1

Host: test.webarticles.com

With this URL, the browser requests the dynamic page show.asp from the server and with it also sends the parameter view with the value of oldarchive.html. When this request is executed on the web server, show.asp retrieves the file oldarchive.html from the server’s file system, renders it and then sends it back to the browser which displays it to the user. The attacker would assume that show.asp can retrieve files from the file system and sends the following custom URL.

GET http://test.webarticles.com/show.asp?view=../../../../../Windows/system.ini HTTP/1.1

Host: test.webarticles.com

This will cause the dynamic page to retrieve the file system.ini from the file system and display it to the user. The expression ../ instructs the system to go one directory up which is commonly used as an operating system directive. The attacker has to guess how many directories he has to go up to find the Windows folder on the system, but this is easily done by trial and error.

Example of a Directory Traversal attack via web serverApart from vulnerabilities in the code, even the web server itself can be open to directory traversal attacks. The problem can either be incorporated into the web server software or inside some sample script files left available on the server.

The vulnerability has been fixed in the latest versions of web server software, but there are web servers online which are still using older versions of IIS and Apache which might be open to directory traversal attacks. Even though you might be using a web server software version that has fixed this vulnerability, you might still have some sensitive default script directories exposed which are well known to hackers.

For example, a URL request which makes use of the scripts directory of IIS to traverse directories and execute a command can be

GET http://server.com/scripts/..%5c../Windows/System32/cmd.exe?/c+dir+c:\ HTTP/1.1

Host: server.com

The request would return to the user a list of all files in the C:\ directory by executing the cmd.exe command shell file and run the command dir c:\ in the shell. The %5c expression that is in the URL request is a web server escape code which is used to represent normal characters. In this case %5c represents the character \.

Newer versions of modern web server software check for these escape codes and do not let them through. Some older versions however, do not filter out these codes in the root directory enforcer and will let the attackers execute such commands.

Out-of-band SQL injection occurs when an attacker is unable to use an equivalent channel to launch the attack and gather results. … Out-of-band SQLi techniques would believe the database server’s ability to form DNS or HTTP requests to deliver data to an attacker. Out-of-band SQL injection is not very common, mostly because it depends on features being enabled on the database server being used by the web application. Out-of-band SQL injection occurs when an attacker is unable to use the same channel to launch the attack and gather results.

Out-of-band techniques, offer an attacker an alternative to inferential time-based techniques, especially if the server responses are not very stable (making an inferential time-based attack unreliable).

Out-of-band SQLi techniques would rely on the database server’s ability to make DNS or HTTP requests to deliver data to an attacker. Such is the case with Microsoft SQL Server’s xp_dirtree command, which can be used to make DNS requests to a server an attacker controls; as well as Oracle Database’s UTL_HTTP package, which can be used to send HTTP requests from SQL and PL/SQL to a server an attacker controls.

Operation Cloud Hopper was an in depth attack and theft of data in 2017 directed at MSP within the uk (U.K.), us (U.S.), Japan, Canada, Brazil, France, Switzerland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, South Africa , India, Thailand, South Korea and Australia. The group used MSP as intermediaries to accumulate assets and trade secrets from MSP client engineering, MSP industrial manufacturing, retail, energy, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, and government agencies.Operation Cloud Hopper used over 70 variants of backdoors, malware and trojans. These were delivered through spear-phishing emails. The attacks scheduled tasks or leveraged services/utilities to continue Microsoft Windows systems albeit the pc system was rebooted. It installed malware and hacking tools to access systems and steal data.

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard organization convention utilized for the exchange of PC records from a worker to a customer on a PC organization. FTP is based on a customer worker model engineering utilizing separate control and information associations between the customer and the server.[1] FTP clients may validate themselves with an unmistakable book sign-in convention, ordinarily as a username and secret key, however can interface namelessly if the worker is designed to permit it. For secure transmission that ensures the username and secret phrase, and scrambles the substance, FTP is frequently made sure about with SSL/TLS (FTPS) or supplanted with SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP).

The primary FTP customer applications were order line programs created prior to working frameworks had graphical UIs, are as yet dispatched with most Windows, Unix, and Linux working systems.[2][3] Many FTP customers and mechanization utilities have since been created for working areas, workers, cell phones, and equipment, and FTP has been fused into profitability applications, for example, HTML editors.

A cloud carrier acts as an intermediary that provides connectivity and transport of cloud services between cloud consumers and cloud providers.

Cloud carriers provide access to consumers through network, telecommunication and other access devices. for instance, cloud consumers will obtain cloud services through network access devices, like computers, laptops, mobile phones, mobile web devices (MIDs), etc.

The distribution of cloud services is often provided by network and telecommunication carriers or a transport agent, wherever a transport agent refers to a business organization that provides physical transport of storage media like high-capacity hard drives.

Note that a cloud provider can started SLAs with a cloud carrier to provide services consistent with the level of SLAs offered to cloud consumers, and will require the cloud carrier to provide dedicated and secure connections between cloud consumers and cloud providers.

A honeypot may be a trap that an IT pro lays for a malicious hacker, hoping that they will interact with it during a way that gives useful intelligence. It’s one among the oldest security measures in IT, but beware: luring hackers onto your network, even on an isolated system, are often a dangerous game.honeypot may be a good starting place: “A honeypot may be a computer or computing system intended to mimic likely targets of cyberattacks.” Often a honeypot are going to be deliberately configured with known vulnerabilities in situation to form a more tempting or obvious target for attackers. A honeypot won’t contain production data or participate in legitimate traffic on your network — that’s how you’ll tell anything happening within it’s a results of an attack. If someone’s stopping by, they’re up to no good.That definition covers a various array of systems, from bare-bones virtual machines that only offer a couple of vulnerable systems to ornately constructed fake networks spanning multiple servers. and therefore the goals of these who build honeypots can vary widely also , starting from defense thorough to academic research. additionally , there’s now an entire marketing category of deception technology that, while not meeting the strict definition of a honeypot, is certainly within the same family. But we’ll get thereto during a moment.honeypots aim to permit close analysis of how hackers do their dirty work. The team controlling the honeypot can watch the techniques hackers use to infiltrate systems, escalate privileges, and otherwise run amok through target networks. These sorts of honeypots are found out by security companies, academics, and government agencies looking to look at the threat landscape. Their creators could also be curious about learning what kind of attacks are out there, getting details on how specific sorts of attacks work, or maybe trying to lure a specific hackers within the hopes of tracing the attack back to its source. These systems are often inbuilt fully isolated lab environments, which ensures that any breaches don’t end in non-honeypot machines falling prey to attacks.Production honeypots, on the opposite hand, are usually deployed in proximity to some organization’s production infrastructure, though measures are taken to isolate it the maximum amount as possible. These honeypots often serve both as bait to distract hackers who could also be trying to interrupt into that organization’s network, keeping them faraway from valuable data or services; they will also function a canary within the coalpit , indicating that attacks are underway and are a minimum of partially succeeding.

The longer an adversary has this level of access, the greater the impact. Defenders must detect this stage as quickly as possible and deploy tools which can enable them to gather forensic evidence. One example would come with network packet captures, for damage assessment. Only now, after progressing through the primary six phases, can intruders take actions to realize their original objectives. Typically, the target of knowledge exfiltration involves collecting, encrypting and extracting information from the victim(s) environment; violations of knowledge integrity or availability are potential objectives also . Alternatively, and most ordinarily , the intruder may only desire access to the initial victim box to be used as a hop point to compromise additional systems and move laterally inside the network. Once this stage is identified within an environment, the implementation of prepared reaction plans must be initiated. At a minimum, the plan should include a comprehensive communication plan, detailed evidence must be elevated to the very best ranking official or board , the deployment of end-point security tools to dam data loss and preparation for briefing a CIRT Team. Having these resources well established beforehand may be a “MUST” in today’s quickly evolving landscape of cybersecurity threats

A white hat (or a white hat hacker) is an ethical computer hacker, or a computer security expert, who focuses on penetration testing and in other testing methodologies that ensures the safety of an organization’s information systems. Ethical hacking may be a term meant to imply a broader category than simply penetration testing. Contrasted with black hat, a malicious hacker, the name comes from Western films, where heroic and antagonistic cowboys might traditionally wear a white and a black hat respectively. While a white hat hacker hacks under good intentions with permission, and a black hat hacker, most frequently unauthorized, has malicious intent, there’s a 3rd kind referred to as a gray hat hacker who hacks with good intentions but sometimes without permission.White hat hackers can also add teams called “sneakers and/or hacker clubs”,red teams, or tiger teams.While penetration testing concentrates on attacking software and computer systems from the beginning – scanning ports, examining known defects in protocols and applications running on the system and patch installations, as an example – ethical hacking may include other things. A full-blown ethical hack might include emailing staff to invite password details, searching through executive’s dustbins and typically breaking and entering, without the knowledge and consent of the targets. Only the owners, CEOs and Board Members (stake holders) who asked for such a censoring of this magnitude are aware. to undertake to duplicate a number of the destructive techniques a true attack might employ, ethical hackers may arrange for cloned test systems, or organize a hack late in the dark while systems are less critical. In most up-to-date cases these hacks perpetuate for the long-term con (days, if not weeks, of long-term human infiltration into an organization). Some examples include leaving USB/flash key drives with hidden auto-start software during a public area as if someone lost the tiny drive and an unsuspecting employee found it and took it.Some other methods of completing these include:• DoS attacks• Social engineering tactics• Reverse engineering• Network security• Disk and memory forensics• Vulnerability research• Security scanners such as:– W3af– Nessus– Burp suite• Frameworks such as:– Metasploit• Training PlatformsThese methods identify and exploit known security vulnerabilities and plan to evade security to realize entry into secured areas. they’re ready to do that by hiding software and system ‘back-doors’ which will be used as a link to information or access that a non-ethical hacker, also referred to as ‘black-hat’ or ‘grey-hat’, might want to succeed in .

An iPhone client’s most noticeably terrible bad dream is to have somebody oversee his/her gadget, including the capacity to record and control all action without waiting be in a similar room. In this blog entry, we present another weakness called “Trustjacking”, which permits an aggressor to do precisely that.

This weakness misuses an iOS highlight called iTunes Wi-Fi sync, which permits a client to deal with their iOS gadget without genuinely interfacing it to their PC. A solitary tap by the iOS gadget proprietor when the two are associated with a similar organization permits an assailant to oversee the gadget. Furthermore, we will stroll through past related weaknesses and show the progressions that iPhone has made to alleviate them, and why these are adequately not to forestall comparative assaults.

After interfacing an iOS gadget to another PC, the clients are being found out if they trust the associated PC or not. Deciding to believe the PC permits it to speak with the iOS gadget by means of the standard iTunes APIs.

This permits the PC to get to the photographs on the gadget, perform reinforcement, introduce applications and considerably more, without requiring another affirmation from the client and with no recognizable sign. Besides, this permits enacting the “iTunes Wi-Fi sync” highlight, which makes it conceivable to proceed with this sort of correspondence with the gadget even after it has been detached from the PC, as long as the PC and the iOS gadget are associated with a similar organization. It is intriguing to take note of that empowering “iTunes Wi-Fi sync” doesn’t need the casualty’s endorsement and can be directed simply from the PC side.

Getting a live stream of the gadget’s screen should be possible effectively by consistently requesting screen captures and showing or recording them distantly.

It is imperative to take note of that other than the underlying single purpose of disappointment, approving the vindictive PC, there is no other component that forestalls this proceeded with access. Likewise, there isn’t anything that informs the clients that by approving the PC they permit admittance to their gadget even in the wake of detaching the USB link.

One may append the comment “–” operator along with the String for the username and whole avoid executing the password segment of the SQL query. Everything when the — operator would be considered as comment and not dead.

To launch such an attack, the value passed for name could be ’OR ‘1’=‘1’ ; —Statement = “SELECT * FROM ‘CustomerDB’ WHERE ‘name’ = ‘ ”+ userName + “ ‘ AND ‘password’ = ‘ ” + passwd + “ ‘ ; ”

Statement = “SELECT * FROM ‘CustomerDB’ WHERE ‘name’ = ‘ ’ OR ‘1’=‘1‘;– + “ ‘ AND ‘password’ = ‘ ” + passwd + “ ‘ ; ”

All the records from the customer database would be listed.

Yet, another variation of the SQL Injection Attack can be conducted in dbms systems that allow multiple SQL injection statements. Here, we will also create use of the vulnerability in sure dbms whereby a user provided field isn’t strongly used in or isn’t checked for sort constraints.

This could take place once a numeric field is to be employed in a SQL statement; but, the programmer makes no checks to validate that the user supplied input is numeric.

Variation is an evasion technique whereby the attacker can easily evade any comparison statement. The attacker does this by placing characters such as “' or '1'='1'” in any basic injection statement such as “or 1=1” or with other accepted SQL comments.

Evasion Technique: Variation Variation is an evasion technique whereby the attacker can easily evade any comparison statement. The attacker does this by placing characters such as “' or '1'='1'” in any basic injection statement such as “or 1=1” or with other accepted SQL comments. The SQL interprets this as a comparison between two strings or characters instead of two numeric values. As the evaluation of two strings yields a true statement, similarly, the evaluation of two numeric values yields a true statement, thus rendering the evaluation of the complete query unaffected. It is also possible to write many other signatures; thus, there are infinite possibilities of variation as well. The main aim of the attacker is to have a WHERE statement that is always evaluated as “true” so that any mathematical or string comparison can be used, where the SQL can perform the same.

A pharming attacker tries to send a web site’s traffic to a faux website controlled by the offender, typically for the aim of collection sensitive data from victims or putting in malware on their machines. Attacker tend to specialize in making look-alike ecommerce and digital banking websites to reap credentials and payment card data.

Though they share similar goals, pharming uses a special technique from phishing. “Pharming attacker are targeted on manipulating a system, instead of tricking people into reaching to a dangerous web site,” explains David Emm, principal security man of science at Kaspersky. “When either a phishing or pharming attacker is completed by a criminal, they need a similar driving issue to induce victims onto a corrupt location, however the mechanisms during which this is often undertaken are completely different.”

Passwords are usually delineated as “hashed and salted”. salting is simply the addition of a unique, random string of characters renowned solely to the site to every parole before it’s hashed, typically this “salt” is placed in front of each password.

The salt value needs to be hold on by the site, which means typically sites use the same salt for each parole. This makes it less effective than if individual salts are used.

The use of unique salts means that common passwords shared by multiple users – like “123456” or “password” – aren’t revealed revealed when one such hashed password is known – because despite the passwords being the same the immediately and hashed values are not.

Large salts also protect against certain methods of attack on hashes, including rainbow tables or logs of hashed passwords previously broken.

Both hashing and salting may be repeated more than once to increase the issue in breaking the security.

After the attacker completes preparations, subsequent step is an effort to realize an edge within the target’s environment. a particularly common entry tactic is that the use of spearphishing emails containing an internet link or attachment. Email links usually cause sites where the target’s browser and related software are subjected to varied exploit techniques or where the APT actors plan to social engineer information from the victim which will be used later. If a successful exploit takes place, it installs an initial malware payload on the victim’s computer. Figure 2 illustrates an example of a spearphishing email that contains an attachment. Attachments are usually executable malware, a zipper or other archive containing malware, or a malicious Office or Adobe PDF (Portable Document Format) document that exploits vulnerabilities within the victim’s applications to ultimately execute malware on the victim’s computer. Once the user has opened a malicious file using vulnerable software, malware is executing on the target system. These phishing emails are often very convincing and difficult to differentiate from legitimate email messages. Tactics to extend their believability include modifying legitimate documents from or associated with the organization. Documents are sometimes stolen from the organization or their collaborators during previous exploitation operations. Actors modify the documents by adding exploits and malicious code then send them to the victims. Phishing emails are commonly sent through previously compromised email servers, email accounts at organizations associated with the target or public email services. Emails also can be sent through mail relays with modified email headers to form the messages appear to possess originated from legitimate sources. Exploitation of vulnerabilities on public-facing servers is another favorite technique of some APT groups. Though this will be accomplished using exploits for known vulnerabilities, 0-days are often developed or purchased to be used in intrusions as required .

Gaining an edge within the target environment is that the primary goal of the initial intrusion. Once a system is exploited, the attacker usually places malware on the compromised system and uses it as a jump point or proxy for further actions. Malware placed during the initial intrusion phase is usually an easy downloader, basic Remote Access Trojan or an easy shell. Figure 3 illustrates a newly infected system initiating an outbound connection to notify the APT actor that the initial intrusion attempt was successful which it’s able to accept commands.

DNS uses Ports 53 which is almost always open on systems, firewalls, and clients to transmit DNS queries. instead of the more familiar Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) these queries use User Datagram Protocol (UDP) due to its low-latency, bandwidth and resource usage compared TCP-equivalent queries. UDP has no error or flow-control capabilities, nor does it have any integrity checking to make sure the info arrived intact.How is internet use (browsing, apps, chat etc) so reliable then? If the UDP DNS query fails (it’s a best-effort protocol after all) within the first instance, most systems will retry variety of times and only after multiple failures, potentially switch to TCP before trying again; TCP is additionally used if the DNS query exceeds the restrictions of the UDP datagram size – typically 512 bytes for DNS but can depend upon system settings.Figure 1 below illustrates the essential process of how DNS operates: the client sends a question string (for example, mail.google[.]com during this case) with a particular type – typically A for a number address. I’ve skipped the part whereby intermediate DNS systems may need to establish where ‘.com’ exists, before checking out where ‘google[.]com’ are often found, and so on.

Many worms and scanners are created to seek out and exploit systems running telnet. Given these facts, it’s really no surprise that telnet is usually seen on the highest Ten Target Ports list. Several of the vulnerabilities of telnet are fixed. They require only an upgrade to the foremost current version of the telnet Daemon or OS upgrade. As is usually the case, this upgrade has not been performed on variety of devices. this might flow from to the very fact that a lot of systems administrators and users don’t fully understand the risks involved using telnet. Unfortunately, the sole solution for a few of telnets vulnerabilities is to completely discontinue its use. the well-liked method of mitigating all of telnets vulnerabilities is replacing it with alternate protocols like ssh. Ssh is capable of providing many of an equivalent functions as telnet and a number of other additional services typical handled by other protocols like FTP and Xwindows. Ssh does still have several drawbacks to beat before it can completely replace telnet. it’s typically only supported on newer equipment. It requires processor and memory resources to perform the info encryption and decryption. It also requires greater bandwidth than telnet thanks to the encryption of the info . This paper was written to assist clarify how dangerous the utilization of telnet are often and to supply solutions to alleviate the main known threats so as to enhance the general security of the web

Once a reputation is resolved to an IP caching also helps: the resolved name-to-IP is usually cached on the local system (and possibly on intermediate DNS servers) for a period of your time . Subsequent queries for an equivalent name from an equivalent client then don’t leave the local system until said cache expires. Of course, once the IP address of the remote service is understood , applications can use that information to enable other TCP-based protocols, like HTTP, to try to to their actual work, for instance ensuring internet cat GIFs are often reliably shared together with your colleagues.So, beat all, a couple of dozen extra UDP DNS queries from an organization’s network would be fairly inconspicuous and will leave a malicious payload to beacon bent an adversary; commands could even be received to the requesting application for processing with little difficulty.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-key_cryptography

Public-key cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, is a cryptographic system that uses pairs of keys: public keys (which may be known to others), and private keys (which may never be known by any except the owner). The generation of such key pairs depends on cryptographic algorithms which are based on mathematical problems termed one-way functions. Effective security requires keeping the private key private; the public key can be openly distributed without compromising security.

In such a system, any person can encrypt a message using the intended receiver's public key, but that encrypted message can only be decrypted with the receiver's private key. This allows, for instance, a server program to generate a cryptographic key intended for a suitable symmetric-key cryptography, then to use a client's openly-shared public key to encrypt that newly generated symmetric key. The server can then send this encrypted symmetric key over an insecure channel to the client; only the client can decrypt it using the client's private key (which pairs with the public key used by the server to encrypt the message). With the client and server both having the same symmetric key, they can safely use symmetric key encryption (likely much faster) to communicate over otherwise-insecure channels. This scheme has the advantage of not having to manually pre-share symmetric keys (a fundamentally difficult problem) while gaining the higher data throughput advantage of symmetric-key cryptography.

With public-key cryptography, robust authentication is also possible. A sender can combine a message with a private key to create a short digital signature on the message. Anyone with the sender's corresponding public key can combine that message with a claimed digital signature; if the signature matches the message, the origin of the message is verified (i.e., it must have been made by the owner of the corresponding private key).

Public key algorithms are fundamental security primitives in modern cryptosystems, including applications and protocols which offer assurance of the confidentiality, authenticity and non-repudiability of electronic communications and data storage. They underpin numerous Internet standards, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), S/MIME, PGP, and GPG. Some public key algorithms provide key distribution and secrecy (e.g., Diffie–Hellman key exchange), some provide digital signatures (e.g., Digital Signature Algorithm), and some provide both (e.g., RSA). Compared to symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption is rather slower than good symmetric encryption, too slow for many purposes. Today's cryptosystems (such as TLS, Secure Shell) use both symmetric encryption and asymmetric encryption.

The idle scan could be a communications protocol port scan technique that consists of causing spoofed packets to a pc to seek out out what services square measure obtainable. this can be accomplished by impersonating another pc whose network traffic is extremely slow or nonexistent (that is, not transmission or receiving information). this might be associate idle pc, known as a “zombie”.

This action are often done through common code network utilities like nmap and hping. The attack involves causing solid packets to a particular machine target in an attempt to seek out distinct characteristics of another zombie machine. The attack is refined as a result of there’s no interaction between the offender pc and also the target: the offender interacts solely with the “zombie” pc.

This exploit functions with 2 functions, as a port scanner and a clerk of sure informatics relationships between machines. The target system interacts with the “zombie” pc and distinction in behavior are often discovered mistreatment totally different|completely different “zombies” with proof of various privileges granted by the target to different computers.

The overall intention behind the idle scan is to “check the port standing whereas remaining utterly invisible to the targeted host.”

The first step in execution associate idle scan is to seek out associate applicable zombie. It must assign informatics ID packets incrementally on a worldwide (rather than per-host it communicates with) basis. It ought to be idle (hence the scan name), as extraneous traffic can raise its informatics ID sequence, confusing the scan logic. The lower the latency between the offender and also the zombie, and between the zombie and also the target, the quicker the scan can proceed.

Note that once a port is open, IPIDs increment by a pair of. Following is that the sequence:

• offender to focus on -> SYN, target to zombie ->SYN/ACK, Zombie to focus on -> RST (IPID increment by 1)
• currently offender tries to probe zombie for result. offender to Zombie ->SYN/ACK, Zombie to offender -> RST (IPID increment by 1)

So, during this method IPID increments by a pair of finally.

When associate idle scan is tried, tools (for example nmap) tests the projected zombie and reports any issues with it. If one does not work, attempt another. Enough net hosts square measure vulnerable that zombie candidates are not exhausting to seek out. a standard approach is to easily execute a ping sweep of some network. selecting a network close to your supply address, or close to the target, produces higher results. you’ll be able to attempt associate idle scan mistreatment every obtainable host from the ping sweep results till you discover one that works. As usual, it’s best to raise permission before mistreatment someone’s machines for surprising functions like idle scanning.

Simple network devices typically create nice zombies as a result of {they square measure|they’re} normally each underused (idle) and designed with straightforward network stacks that are susceptible to informatics ID traffic detection.

While distinguishing an acceptable zombie takes some initial work, you’ll be able to keep re-using the nice ones. as an alternative, there are some analysis on utilizing unplanned public internet services as zombie hosts to perform similar idle scans. leverage the approach a number of these services perform departing connections upon user submissions will function some quite poor’s man idle scanning.

STP prevents bridging loops in a redundant switched network environment. By avoiding loops, you can ensure that broadcast traffic does not become a traffic storm.

STP is a hierarchical tree-like topology with a “root” switch at the top. A switch is elected as root based on the lowest configured priority of any switch (0 through 65,535). When a switch boots up, it begins a process of identifying other switches and determining the root bridge. After a root bridge is elected, the topology is established from its perspective of the connectivity. The switches determine the path to the root bridge, and all redundant paths are blocked. STP sends configuration and topology change notifications and acknowledgments (TCN/TCA) using bridge protocol data units (BPDU).

An STP attack involves an attacker spoofing the root bridge in the topology. The attacker broadcasts out an STP configuration/topology change BPDU in an attempt to force an STP recalculation. The BPDU sent out announces that the attacker’s system has a lower bridge priority. The attacker can then see a variety of frames forwarded from other switches to it. STP recalculation may also cause a denial-of-service (DoS) condition on the network by causing an interruption of 30 to 45 seconds each time the root bridge changes. An attacker using STP network topology changes to force its host to be elected as the root bridge.

switch

https://www.darknet.org.uk/2017/07/bluto-dns-recon-zone-transfer-brute-forcer/

"Attackers also use DNS lookup tools such as DNSdumpster.com, Bluto, and Domain Dossier to retrieve DNS records for a specified domain or hostname. These tools retrieve information such as domains and IP addresses, domain Whois records, DNS records, and network Whois records." CEH Module 02 Page 138

Kernel-mode rootkits run with the best operating system privileges (Ring 0) by adding code or replacement parts of the core operating system, as well as each the kernel and associated device drivers. Most operative systems support kernel-mode device drivers, that execute with a similar privileges because the software itself. As such, several kernel-mode rootkits square measure developed as device drivers or loadable modules, like loadable kernel modules in Linux or device drivers in Microsoft Windows. This category of rootkit has unrestricted security access, however is tougher to jot down. The quality makes bugs common, and any bugs in code operative at the kernel level could seriously impact system stability, resulting in discovery of the rootkit. one amongst the primary wide familiar kernel rootkits was developed for Windows NT four.0 and discharged in Phrack magazine in 1999 by Greg Hoglund. Kernel rootkits is particularly tough to observe and take away as a result of they operate at a similar security level because the software itself, and square measure therefore able to intercept or subvert the foremost sure software operations. Any package, like antivirus package, running on the compromised system is equally vulnerable. during this scenario, no a part of the system is sure.

The host discovery technique that the tester should use is TCP SYN Ping Scan. This technique sends a TCP SYN packet to a specified port on the target host and waits for a response. If the host responds with a TCP SYN/ACK packet, it means the host is alive and the port is open. If the host responds with a TCP RST packet, it means the host is alive but the port is closed. If the host does not respond at all, it means the host is either dead or filtered by a firewall12. TCP SYN Ping Scan can bypass firewall restrictions because it mimics the initial stage of a TCP three-way handshake, which is a common and legitimate network activity. Therefore, most firewalls will allow TCP SYN packets to pass through and reach the target host, unless they are configured to block specific ports or IP addresses3. TCP SYN Ping Scan can also accurately identify live systems because it does not rely on ICMP, which may be blocked or rate-limited by some firewalls or routers.

The other options are not as effective or feasible as TCP SYN Ping Scan for the following reasons:

• A. UDP Ping Scan: This technique sends a UDP packet to a specified port on the target host and waits for a response. If the host responds with an ICMP Port Unreachable message, it means the host is alive but the port is closed. If the host does not respond at all, it means the host is either dead, the port is open, or the packet is filtered by a firewall12. UDP Ping Scan may not bypass firewall restrictions because some firewalls may block or drop UDP packets, especially if they are sent to uncommon or reserved ports. UDP Ping Scan may also not accurately identify live systems because it cannot distinguish between open ports and filtered packets, and it may generate false positives or negatives due to packet loss or rate-limiting.
• B. ICMP ECHO Ping Scan: This technique sends an ICMP ECHO Request packet to the target host and waits for an ICMP ECHO Reply packet. If the host responds with an ICMP ECHO Reply packet, it means the host is alive. If the host does not respond at all, it means the host is either dead or filtered by a firewall12. ICMP ECHO Ping Scan may not bypass firewall restrictions because some firewalls may block or drop ICMP packets, especially if they are sent to prevent ping sweeps or denial-of-service attacks. ICMP ECHO Ping Scan may also not accurately identify live systems because it may generate false positives or negatives due to packet loss or rate-limiting.
• C. ICMP Timestamp Ping Scan: This technique sends an ICMP Timestamp Request packet to the target host and waits for an ICMP Timestamp Reply packet. If the host responds with an ICMP Timestamp Reply packet, it means the host is alive. If the host does not respond at all, it means the host is either dead or filtered by a firewall12. ICMP Timestamp Ping Scan may not bypass firewall restrictions because some firewalls may block or drop ICMP packets, especially if they are sent to prevent ping sweeps or denial-of-service attacks. ICMP Timestamp Ping Scan may also not accurately identify live systems because it may generate false positives or negatives due to packet loss or rate-limiting.

References:

• 1: Host Discovery in Nmap Network Scanning - GeeksforGeeks
• 2: nmap Host Discovery Techniques
• 3: TCP SYN Ping Scan - Nmap
• : Ping Sweep - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• : UDP Ping Scan - Nmap
• : UDP Ping Scan - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• : ICMP Ping Scan - Nmap
• : ICMP Ping Scan - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

There is no single, standardized classification of cross-site scripting flaws, but most experts distinguish between at least two primary flavors of XSS flaws: non-persistent and persistent. In this issue, we consider the non-persistent cross-site scripting vulnerability.

The non-persistent (or reflected) cross-site scripting vulnerability is by far the most basic type of web vulnerability. These holes show up when the data provided by a web client, most commonly in HTTP query parameters (e.g. HTML form submission), is used immediately by server-side scripts to parse and display a page of results for and to that user, without properly sanitizing the content.

Because HTML documents have a flat, serial structure that mixes control statements, formatting, and the actual content, any non-validated user-supplied data included in the resulting page without proper HTML encoding, may lead to markup injection. A classic example of a potential vector is a site search engine: if one searches for a string, the search string will typically be redisplayed verbatim on the result page to indicate what was searched for. If this response does not properly escape or reject HTML control characters, a cross-site scripting flaw will ensue.

https://linuxsecurityblog.com/2018/12/23/create-a-backdoor-with-cryptcat/

Cryptcat enables us to communicate between two systems and encrypts the communication between them with twofish, one of many excellent encryption algorithms from Bruce Schneier et al. Twofish’s encryption is on par with AES encryption, making it nearly bulletproof. In this way, the IDS can’t detect the malicious behavior taking place even when its traveling across normal HTTP ports like 80 and 443.

When using exploits, you might gain access as only a local user. This limits what you can do on the target machine. You can use Meterpreters 'getsystem` command (https://github.com/rapid7/metasploit-payloads/blob/master/c/meterpreter/source/extensions/priv/elevate.c#L70) to elevate your permissions from a local administrator to SYSTEM. This works by using three elevation techniques.

File created by Bash, a Unix-based shell program commonly used on Mac OS X and Linux operating systems; stores a history of user commands entered at the command prompt; used for viewing old commands that are executed.BASH_HISTORY files are hidden files with no filename prefix. They always use the filename .bash_history.NOTE: Bash is that the shell program employed by Apple Terminal.Our goal is to assist you understand what a file with a *.bash_history suffix is and the way to open it.The Bash History file type, file format description, and Mac and Linux programs listed on this page are individually researched and verified by the FileInfo team. we attempt for 100% accuracy and only publish information about file formats that we’ve tested and validated.

Agent Smith Attack

Agent Smith attacks are carried out by luring victims into downloading and installing malicious

apps designed and published by attackers in the form of games, photo editors, or other

attractive tools from third-party app stores such as 9Apps. Once the user has installed the app,

the core malicious code inside the application infects or replaces the legitimate apps in the

victim's mobile device C&C commands. The deceptive application replaces legitimate apps such

as WhatsApp, SHAREit, and MX Player with similar infected versions. The application sometimes

also appears to be an authentic Google product such as Google Updater or Themes. The

attacker then produces a massive volume of irrelevant and fraudulent advertisements on the

victim's device through the infected app for financial gain. Attackers exploit these apps to steal

critical information such as personal information, credentials, and bank details, from the

victim's mobile device through C&C commands.

Types of Vulnerability Assessment - External Assessment External assessment examines the network from a hacker’s point of view to identify exploits and vulnerabilities accessible to the outside world. These types of assessments use external devices such as firewalls, routers, and servers. An external assessment estimates the threat of network security attacks from outside the organization. It determines the level of security of the external network and firewall. (P.527/511)

External assessment examines the network from a hacker’s point of view to identify exploits and vulnerabilities accessible to the outside world. These types of assessments use external devices such as firewalls, routers, and servers. An external assessment estimates the threat of network security attacks from outside the organization. It determines the level of security of the external network and firewall.

The following are some of the possible steps in performing an external assessment:

o Determine a set of rules for firewall and router configurations for the external network

o Check whether the external server devices and network devices are mapped o Identify open ports and related services on the external network o Examine the patch levels on the server and external network devices o Review detection systems such as IDS, firewalls, and application-layer protection systems

o Get information on DNS zones

o Scan the external network through a variety of proprietary tools available on the Internet

o Examine Web applications such as e-commerce and shopping cart software for vulnerabilities

One of the most important actions to secure a web server from common threats is to regularly update and patch the server software. This includes the operating system, the web server software, the database software, and any other applications or frameworks that run on the server. Updating and patching the server software can fix known vulnerabilities, bugs, or errors that could be exploited by attackers to compromise the server or the website. Failing to update and patch the server software can expose the server to common attacks, such as SQL injection, cross-site scripting, remote code execution, denial-of-service, etc.

Installing a web application firewall, limiting the number of concurrent connections to the server, and encrypting the company’s website with SSL/TLS are also good practices to secure a web server, but they are not as critical as updating and patching the server software. A web application firewall can filter and block malicious requests, but it cannot prevent attacks that exploit unpatched vulnerabilities in the server software. Limiting the number of concurrent connections to the server can prevent overload and improve performance, but it cannot stop attackers from sending malicious requests or payloads. Encrypting the company’s website with SSL/TLS can protect the data in transit between the server and the client, but it cannot protect the data at rest on the server or prevent attacks that target the server itself.

Therefore, the priority action to secure a web server from common threats is to regularly update and patch the server software.

References:

• Web Server Security- Beginner’s Guide - Astra Security Blog
• Top 10 Web Server Security Best Practices | Liquid Web
• 21 Server Security Tips & Best Practices To Secure Your Server - phoenixNAP

A thin Whois model is a type of data model that is used by some domain registrars for storing and looking up Whois information. In a thin Whois model, the registrar only stores the basic information about the domain, such as the domain name, the registrar name, the name servers, and the registration and expiration dates. The rest of the information, such as the contact details of the domain owner, the administrative contact, and the technical contact, is stored by the registry that manages the top-level domain (TLD) of the domain. For example, the registry for .com and .net domains is Verisign, and the registry for .org domains is Public Interest Registry. When a Whois lookup is performed on a domain that uses a thin Whois model, the registrar’s Whois server only returns the basic information and refers the query to the registry’s Whois server for the complete information1.

As a hacker, if you are unable to gather complete Whois information from the registrar for a particular set of data, it might be because the domain’s registrar is using a thin Whois model and the registry’s Whois server is not responding or providing the information. This could be due to various reasons, such as network issues, server errors, rate limits, privacy policies, or legal restrictions. Therefore, the probable data model being utilized by the domain’s registrar for storing and looking up Whois information is a thin Whois model working correctly.

References:

• Differences Between Thin WHOIS vs Thick WHOIS – OpenSRS Help & Support

The best practice to meet the client’s requirement is to encrypt data client-side before uploading to the cloud and retain control of the encryption keys. This practice is also known as client-side encryption or end-to-end encryption, and it involves encrypting the data on the client’s device using a software or hardware tool that generates and manages the encryption keys. The encrypted data is then uploaded to the cloud service, where it remains encrypted at rest. The encryption keys are never shared with the cloud service provider or any third party, and they are only used by the client to decrypt the data when needed. This way, the client can maintain full control over the encryption keys and the security of the data, even when the data is stored on a public cloud service12.

The other options are not as optimal as option D for the following reasons:

• A. Use the cloud service provider’s encryption services but store keys on-premises: This option is not feasible because it contradicts the client’s requirement of maintaining full control over the encryption keys. Using the cloud service provider’s encryption services means that the client has to rely on the cloud service provider to generate and manage the encryption keys, even if the keys are stored on-premises. The cloud service provider may have access to the keys or the ability to decrypt the data, which may compromise the security and privacy of the data. Moreover, storing the keys on-premises may introduce additional challenges, such as key distribution, synchronization, backup, and recovery3.
• B. Use the cloud service provider’s default encryption and key management services: This option is not desirable because it violates the client’s requirement of maintaining full control over the encryption keys. Using the cloud service provider’s default encryption and key management services means that the client has to trust the cloud service provider to encrypt and decrypt the data on the server-side, using the cloud service provider’s own encryption keys and mechanisms. The cloud service provider may have access to the keys or the ability to decrypt the data, which may compromise the security and privacy of the data. Furthermore, the cloud service provider’s default encryption and key management services may not meet the regulatory requirements or the security standards of the client4.
• C. Rely on Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encryption for data at rest: This option is not sufficient because SSL encryption is not designed for data at rest, but for data in transit. SSL encryption is a protocol that encrypts the data as it travels over the internet between the client and the server, using certificates and keys that are exchanged and verified by both parties. SSL encryption can protect the data from being intercepted or modified by unauthorized parties, but it does not protect the data from being accessed or decrypted by the cloud service provider or any third party who has access to the server. Moreover, SSL encryption does not provide the client with any control over the encryption keys or the security of the data.

References:

• 1: Client-side encryption - Wikipedia
• 2: What is Client-Side Encryption? | Definition, Benefits & Best Practices | Kaspersky
• 3: Cloud Encryption Key Management: What You Need to Know | Thales
• 4: Cloud Encryption: How It Works and How to Use It | Comparitech
• : What is SSL Encryption and How Does it Work? | Norton

The Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) is a method used to supply a qualitative measure of severity for a vulnerability. CVSS consists of three metric groups: Base, Temporal, and Environmental. The Base metrics produce a score ranging from 0 to 10, which can then be modified by scoring the Temporal and Environmental metrics. A vector string represents the values of all the metrics as a block of text1

The Base metrics measure the intrinsic characteristics of a vulnerability, such as the attack vector, the attack complexity, the required privileges, the user interaction, the scope, and the impact on confidentiality, integrity, and availability. The Base score reflects the severity of a vulnerability assuming that there is no temporal information or context available1

The Temporal metrics measure the characteristics of a vulnerability that change over time, such as the exploit code maturity, the remediation level, and the report confidence. The Temporal score reflects the current state of a vulnerability and its likelihood of being exploited1

The Environmental metrics measure the characteristics of a vulnerability that depend on a specific implementation or environment, such as the security requirements, the modified base metrics, and the collateral damage potential. The Environmental score reflects the impact of a vulnerability on a particular organization or system1

In this scenario, the vulnerability has a Base score of 7, a Temporal score of 8, and an Environmental score of 5. This means that:

• The vulnerability has a high severity based on its intrinsic characteristics, such as the attack vector, the attack complexity, the required privileges, the user interaction, the scope, and the impact on confidentiality, integrity, and availability. A Base score of 7 corresponds to a high severity rating according to the CVSS v3.0 specification1
• The vulnerability has an increasing likelihood of exploitability over time based on its current state, such as the exploit code maturity, the remediation level, and the report confidence. A Temporal score of 8 is higher than the Base score of 7, which indicates that the vulnerability is more likely to be exploited as time passes1
• The vulnerability has a medium impact on the specific environment or implementation based on the security requirements, the modified base metrics, and the collateral damage potential. An Environmental score of 5 is lower than the Base score of 7, which indicates that the vulnerability is less impactful in the particular context of the organization or system1

Therefore, the statement that best describes this scenario is: The vulnerability has an overall high severity, the likelihood of exploitability is increasing over time, and it has a medium impact in their specific environment.

References:

• NVD - Vulnerability Metrics

The ethical hacker conducted Test 1, which is a TCP/IP stack fingerprinting technique that uses the SYN and ECN-Echo flags to determine the OS of the target system. The SYN flag is used to initiate a TCP connection, and the ECN-Echo flag is used to indicate that the sender supports Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN), which is a mechanism to reduce network congestion. Different OSes have different implementations and responses to these flags, which can reveal their identity. For example, Windows XP and 2000 will reply with SYN and ECN-Echo flags set, while Linux will reply with only SYN flag set. By sending a TCP packet with these flags enabled to an open TCP port and observing the reply, the ethical hacker can probe the nature of the response and subsequently determine the OS fingerprint.

The ethical hacker adopted this specific approach because it is an advanced and stealthy technique that can evade some firewalls and intrusion detection systems (IDS) that may block or alert other types of packets, such as NULL, FIN, or Xmas packets. Moreover, this technique can provide more accurate and reliable results than other techniques, such as banner grabbing or passive analysis, that may depend on the availability or validity of the information provided by the target system.

The other options are not correct, as they describe different tests and reasons. Test 3 is a TCP/IP stack fingerprinting technique that uses the URG, PSH, SYN, and FIN flags to determine the OS of the target system. Test 2 is a TCP/IP stack fingerprinting technique that uses a NULL packet, which is a TCP packet with no flags enabled, to determine the OS of the target system. Test 6 is a TCP/IP stack fingerprinting technique that uses the ACK flag, which is used to acknowledge the receipt of a TCP segment, to determine the OS of the target system. References:

• OS and Application Fingerprinting | SANS Institute
• Operating System Fingerprinting | SpringerLink
• OS and Application Fingerprinting - community.akamai.com
• What is OS Fingerprinting and Techniques - Zerosuniverse

The security strategy that you would likely suggest is to adopt a Continual/Adaptive Security Strategy involving ongoing prediction, prevention, detection, and response actions to ensure comprehensive computer network defense. This strategy is based on the concept of continuous monitoring and improvement of the security posture of an organization, using a feedback loop that integrates various security activities and technologies. A Continual/Adaptive Security Strategy aims to proactively identify and mitigate emerging threats, vulnerabilities, and risks, as well as to respond effectively and efficiently to security incidents and breaches. A Continual/Adaptive Security Strategy can help enhance the organization’s security stance by providing the following benefits12:

• It can reduce the attack surface and the exposure time of the organization’s network infrastructure, by applying timely patches, updates, and configurations, as well as by implementing security controls and policies.
• It can increase the visibility and awareness of the organization’s network activity and behavior, by collecting, analyzing, and correlating data from various sources, such as logs, sensors, alerts, and reports.
• It can improve the detection and prevention capabilities of the organization, by using advanced tools and techniques, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, threat intelligence, and behavioral analytics, to identify and block malicious or anomalous patterns and indicators.
• It can enhance the response and recovery processes of the organization, by using automated and orchestrated actions, such as isolation, quarantine, remediation, and restoration, to contain and resolve security incidents and breaches, as well as by conducting lessons learned and root cause analysis to prevent recurrence.

The other options are not as appropriate as option C for the following reasons:

• A. Develop an in-depth Risk Management process, involving identification, assessment, treatment, tracking, and review of risks to control the potential effects on the organization: This option is not sufficient because risk management is only one aspect of a comprehensive security strategy, and it does not address the dynamic and evolving nature of cyber threats and vulnerabilities. Risk management is a process of identifying, analyzing, evaluating, and treating the risks that may affect the organization’s objectives and operations, as well as monitoring and reviewing the effectiveness of the risk treatment measures3. Risk management can help the organization prioritize and allocate resources for security, but it cannot guarantee the prevention or detection of security incidents and breaches, nor the response and recovery from them.
• B. Establish a Defense-in-Depth strategy, incorporating multiple layers of security measures to increase the complexity and decrease the likelihood of a successful attack: This option is not optimal because defense-in-depth is a traditional and static approach to security, and it may not be able to cope with the sophisticated and persistent attacks that exploit unknown or zero-day vulnerabilities. Defense-in-depth is a strategy of implementing multiple and diverse security controls and mechanisms at different layers of the organization’s network infrastructure, such as perimeter, network, endpoint, application, and data, to provide redundancy and resilience against attacks4. Defense-in-depth can help the organization protect its assets and systems from unauthorized access or damage, but it cannot ensure the timely detection and response to security incidents and breaches, nor the continuous improvement of the security posture.
• D. Implement an Information Assurance (IA) policy focusing on ensuring the integrity, availability, confidentiality, and authenticity of information systems: This option is not comprehensive because information assurance is a subset of cybersecurity, and it does not cover all the aspects of a holistic security strategy. Information assurance is a discipline of managing the risks associated with the use, processing, storage, and transmission of information and data, and ensuring the protection of the information and data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification, or destruction5. Information assurance can help the organization safeguard its information and data from compromise or loss, but it does not address the prevention, detection, and response to security incidents and breaches, nor the adaptation and innovation of the security technologies and processes.

References:

• 1: Continual/Adaptive Security Strategy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• 2: Continual Adaptive Security: A New Approach to Cybersecurity | SecurityWeek.Com
• 3: Risk Management - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• 4: Defense in Depth - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
• 5: Information Assurance - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

-q, --quiet quiet (no output)

-S, --server-response print server response

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnetwork

As we can see, we have an IP address of 10.1.4.0 with a subnet mask of /23. According to the question, we need to determine which IP address will be included in the range of the last 100 IP addresses.

The available addresses for hosts start with 10.1.4.1 and end with 10.1.5.254. Now you can clearly see that the last 100 addresses include the address 10.1.5.200.